PFAS Water Contamination: Which Communities Are Most at Risk?

The PFAS Drinking Water Crisis

Water contamination is the primary pathway through which millions of Americans are exposed to toxic PFAS chemicals. The EPA estimates that PFAS have contaminated the drinking water of more than 200 million Americans, making this one of the largest environmental health crises in U.S. history. Unlike many contaminants that can be addressed through standard water treatment, PFAS require specialized and expensive filtration technology to remove.^[1]

PFAS enter drinking water supplies through multiple pathways: industrial discharges from manufacturing facilities, the use of AFFF firefighting foam at military bases and civilian airports, landfill leachate from products containing PFAS, and agricultural runoff from fields treated with PFAS-contaminated sewage sludge used as fertilizer. Once in groundwater or surface water, PFAS travel widely and persist for decades.^[2]

For decades, there were no federal standards for PFAS in drinking water. Water utilities had no legal obligation to test for or remove these chemicals, even as scientific evidence of their health risks mounted. The absence of federal standards left communities entirely dependent on state-level action, which varied enormously across the country.^[1]

EPA's 2024 Drinking Water Standards

In April 2024, the EPA took the most significant federal action on PFAS to date, finalizing the first-ever National Primary Drinking Water Regulation for PFAS. The regulation established Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for six PFAS compounds:^[1]

• PFOA: 4 parts per trillion (ppt)
• PFOS: 4 parts per trillion (ppt)
• PFNA (perfluorononanoic acid): 10 ppt
• PFHxS (perfluorohexane sulfonic acid): 10 ppt
• HFPO-DA (GenX chemicals): 10 ppt
• Mixtures of PFNA, PFHxS, HFPO-DA, and PFBS: A hazard index of 1.0

Water utilities serving at least 25 people must test for these PFAS and bring water into compliance by 2029. The EPA estimates that compliance will require between $1.5 billion and $3.4 billion in annual expenditures by water systems nationally. However, the public health benefits are enormous: the agency estimates the regulation will prevent 9,600 premature deaths and tens of thousands of serious illnesses annually.^[1]

Several states including Michigan, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont enacted their own PFAS drinking water standards before the EPA acted, in some cases setting limits stricter than the federal MCLs. Residents in these states have had legal protections in place for several years.^[3]

Military Bases and AFFF Contamination

The United States military is responsible for some of the most severe PFAS water contamination in the country. For decades, the military used AFFF (aqueous film-forming foam) to train personnel in firefighting and to suppress fires involving jet fuel and other flammable liquids at air stations, aircraft carriers, and fire training facilities. AFFF contains extremely high concentrations of PFOS and PFOA.^[2]

The Department of Defense has identified more than 700 military installations where PFAS contamination from AFFF has migrated into local groundwater. These installations include Air Force bases, Naval Air Stations, Army installations, and National Guard facilities across every region of the country. Communities relying on private wells near these bases have been among the hardest hit.^[4]

Some of the most severely contaminated sites include: Pease Air Force Base in New Hampshire (where community blood testing found elevated PFAS in hundreds of children); Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in North Carolina (which also has a separate contamination history with other chemicals); Eglin Air Force Base in Florida; and Peterson Space Force Base in Colorado. The DoD has been required to provide alternative water sources or filtration to affected communities in many cases.^[4]

Most Affected Communities

Beyond military bases, PFAS contamination is severe in communities near industrial PFAS manufacturers. The Environmental Working Group (EWG) has compiled the most comprehensive public database of PFAS contamination sites, drawing on EPA, state agency, and utility testing data. Their database maps contamination in all 50 states, with particularly high concentrations in:^[3]

• Michigan: Communities near 3M manufacturing facilities and military bases have some of the highest documented contamination. Wolverine World Wide's use of 3M Scotchgard in shoe manufacturing contaminated groundwater in Kent County.
• Pennsylvania: Numerous industrial PFAS users have contaminated drinking water systems in southeastern Pennsylvania.
• New Jersey: PFAS manufacturing and industrial use has left widespread contamination, including near DuPont facilities along the Delaware River.
• North Carolina: The Chemours (formerly DuPont) Fayetteville Works plant has contaminated the Cape Fear River with GenX chemicals, affecting the drinking water of hundreds of thousands of residents in Wilmington and surrounding communities.
• Alabama: The Decatur area near 3M manufacturing facilities has significant contamination affecting Tennessee River tributaries.
• Minnesota: 3M's historical manufacturing in the Twin Cities metro area has contaminated groundwater serving east Metro communities.

Private Well Water and Rural Risk

Approximately 43 million Americans rely on private wells for their drinking water. Private wells are not covered by the Safe Drinking Water Act and are not subject to any federal testing or treatment requirements. This means that private well owners near contamination sources may have no idea they are consuming PFAS-contaminated water.^[5]

Several states have enacted programs to test private wells near known PFAS sources, including wells near military installations and PFAS manufacturing facilities. In Michigan, the state has provided free PFAS testing for private well owners within a certain radius of known contamination sites and has funded alternative water sources for those with contaminated wells. However, many states have no equivalent program.^[3]

If you rely on a private well and live near a military base, airport, or industrial facility, requesting PFAS testing is an important step. Many commercial laboratories can test for a panel of PFAS compounds. Some state environmental agencies also offer low-cost or free testing for residents in known risk areas.^[2]

What Affected Residents Can Do

If you believe your drinking water may be contaminated with PFAS, there are several steps you can take:

• Request your utility's water quality report (CCR): Public water utilities are required to provide annual Consumer Confidence Reports (CCRs) that disclose contaminant levels. Check whether your utility has tested for PFAS and what levels were found.
• Test your private well: Contact a state-certified laboratory or your state environmental agency about PFAS testing for private wells.
• Use a certified water filter: Activated carbon block filters and reverse osmosis systems certified by NSF International for PFAS removal are effective. Point-of-use reverse osmosis systems at the kitchen tap are particularly effective.
• Consult your healthcare provider: Blood testing for PFAS is available through some commercial labs and can help assess your exposure level. Discuss any health symptoms or conditions with your physician.
• Contact an attorney: If you have developed a serious illness linked to PFAS exposure and believe you were exposed through contaminated water, consulting with a PFAS attorney can help you understand your legal options.

Frequently Asked Questions